System Design Basics - Cache Invalidation
Breaking Down Cache Invalidation: Timing, Strategy, and Pitfalls
Hello guys, In the world of system design, caching is one of the most powerful tools for improving performance and scalability. But with great power comes great complexity — and one of the trickiest challenges developers face is cache invalidation.
Imagine a scenario where your application keeps serving outdated data even after the underlying database is updated. That’s a classic cache consistency problem, and if not handled well, it can lead to bugs, stale user experiences, and critical data mismatches.
Earlier I have talked about common system design concepts like Rate Limiter, Database Scaling, API Gateway vs Load Balancer and Horizontal vs Vertical Scaling, Forward proxy vs reverse proxy as well common System Design problems and concepts like Single Point Failure.
And, in this article, we'll explore the fundamentals of cache invalidation — what it is, why it’s necessary, common strategies like write-through, write-behind, and TTLs, and how modern distributed systems tackle it at scale.
Whether you're preparing for a system design interview or building high-performance systems in production, understanding cache invalidation is key to mastering robust system architecture.
For this article, I have teamed up with
a passionate Software Engineer and we'll dive into the fundamental concepts of Cache invalidation, Why its difficult, timeliness vs accuracy, constraints, and tradeoffs.By the way, if you are preparing for System design interviews and want to learn System Design in a limited time then you can also checkout sites like Codemia.io, ByteByteGo, Design Guru, Exponent, Educative, Bugfree.ai, System Design School, and Udemy which have many great System design courses
With that, over to
to take you through the article.We all know caching. It’s the way to get the frequently accessed data faster, without querying our main database.
There are multiple cache-specific databases, like Redis, Memcached, etc.
Suppose you are showing the no. of likes, comments, etc from the cache.
They will get updated, and then eventually you will have to update the cache, or more technically, invalidate the old cache and update the new one.
There are only two hard things in Computer Science: cache invalidation and naming things. - Phil Karlton
If we don’t invalidate the cache at the right time, the user might see stale data, leading to a poor user experience, data inconsistencies, and potentially critical system errors.
In this part of the blog, we will focus on WHY cache invalidation is considered difficult, the intricacies and complexity involved in implementing it correctly.
Why is Cache Invalidation So Darn Difficult?
Timeliness vs Accuracy
The fundamental trade-off — if we invalidate too aggressively, we lose the benefits of caching; if we invalidate too slowly, we serve stale data.
Let’s look at an example for an E-Commerce product stock -
Too Aggressive (Losing Benefits): Imagine an e-commerce site that caches product stock levels. If they invalidate the cache for a popular item every second to ensure absolute accuracy, the cache becomes almost useless.
The database is constantly being hit, slowing down page loads for that product, and the primary benefit of caching (reducing database load and speeding up reads) is lost. Users might experience slightly slower product page loads.
Too Slow (Serving Stale Data): If the stock level cache is only updated every 30 minutes, a customer might see "5 items in stock," add it to their cart, and proceed to checkout, only to be told it's out of stock because other sales happened in that 30-minute window.
This leads to customer frustration and lost sales. The "accuracy" of the displayed stock was compromised for better cache utilization.
Detecting Changes
How does the system know the original data has changed? This can be complex, especially with multiple data sources or unrelated updates.
Let’s look at an example for a Social Media feed -
Consider a user's social media feed. It aggregates posts from friends, followed pages, and group updates. The "feed data" isn't a single entity in one database.
A friend posts a new photo (update in
posts_table).The user joins a new group, and that group's recent activity needs to appear (update in
group_membership_tableandgroup_posts_table).A followed page updates its profile picture (update in
pages_table). If the user's feed is cached, how does the system reliably know to invalidate or update that specific user's cached feed when any of these independent events occur across different data sources or tables?
A simple timestamp on a "feed" object might not be enough. The system needs to track dependencies or have a sophisticated eventing mechanism to signal that a component of the cached feed is now stale.
Scope of Invalidation
Identifying all places of the cached data that need to be removed or updated. A single piece of data might have multiple representations across different cache layers or even within the same cache (e.g., a list view and a detail view).
Let’s look at an example of a News Article Update -
A news website publishes an article, "Local Election Results." This article appears in several places:
The homepage's "Latest News" section (cached list view).
The "Politics" category page (another cached list view).
The article's dedicated page (cached detail view).
A "Top 5 Trending Articles" sidebar widget (cached component).
Maybe in a CDN closer to users in different regions. If a correction is made to the article's headline or some fact is updated, the system must identify and invalidate all these cached representations.
Missing even one means some users will see outdated information. Forgetting to tell the CDN to delete its copy means users in certain regions will see the old version long after the website's internal caches are updated.
Distributed Systems Complexity
Consistency Across Nodes
Keeping all distributed cache nodes in sync is challenging due to network delays.
Example: In a global social network, if a user changes their display name, the update is written to the primary DB, and invalidation messages are broadcast to cache clusters. A delay in invalidation reaching some regions (e.g., Asia) causes inconsistent views across users.
Race Conditions
Concurrent cache access without atomic invalidation can lead to stale or incorrect data.
Example: In a game leaderboard, one process updates a player's score while another invalidates it. If the update happens after a stale read but before invalidation completes, the cache might end up with outdated or corrupt data.
Another edge case: An older invalidation message (e.g., for score 100) can override newer data (e.g., score 150) if received later, due to message reordering.
Network Latency & Partitions
Cache invalidations rely on reliable, timely message propagation.
Example: During a security patch release, if a network partition prevents CDN nodes (e.g., in Australia) from receiving purge commands, they may serve outdated and insecure binaries, causing a major security issue.
Eventual Consistency
Sometimes, systems trade strong consistency for availability and performance.
Example: Social media "likes" aren’t updated instantly across the globe. The system ensures quick local feedback while gradually syncing like counts across regions, embracing eventual consistency for better UX and scalability.
Performance Overhead
Invalidation mechanisms themselves can consume resources and add latency.
Let’s take an example. An e-commerce platform has a large catalog with millions of products.
Many product details (price, description, images) are cached.
If the platform uses a strategy like "tagging" where every cached item related to a product (e.g., search results, category listings, recommendations) is tagged with the product ID, updating one product could mean scanning a large index of tags to find all related cache entries to invalidate.
This scanning and invalidation process, especially if it involves many network calls to distributed cache nodes, consumes CPU, memory, and network bandwidth.
If many products are updated frequently (e.g., during a BIG BILLION SALE kind of event), this invalidation can become significant, slowing down the overall system or the update process itself.
Risk of Over-invalidation (Cache Stampede / Thundering Herd)
Invalidating too much data unnecessarily can lead to a surge of requests to the origin server, negating cache benefits and potentially overwhelming the backend.
A major news website caches its entire homepage for, say, 1 minute to handle high traffic.
Suppose a very minor, non-critical element on the homepage is updated (e.g., a time when the event occurred).
If the invalidation strategy is not good and simply says, "any change to homepage content means invalidate the whole homepage cache," then this tiny update forces the entire homepage to be re-rendered from scratch by the backend servers.
If this happens at peak traffic time, and the 1-minute TTL also expires around the same time, thousands of concurrent user requests suddenly bypass the cache and hit the origin servers simultaneously (a thundering herd).
This can overwhelm the backend, leading to slow load times or even temporary outages, all for a minor update. Deeper invalidation (e.g., fragment caching for certain sections) would have avoided this.
In Brief
Caching boosts performance, but incorrect invalidation can lead to stale data and system inconsistencies.
Timeliness vs. Accuracy is the core trade-off — invalidate too soon, and you lose cache benefits; too late, and you serve outdated data.
Detecting changes across multiple sources (e.g., social media feeds) is hard without proper dependency tracking or event systems.
Scope of invalidation matters — one update (e.g., a news article) might affect multiple cache layers and views.
Distributed systems add complexity: network delays, race conditions, message reordering, and partial failures.
Eventual consistency is often acceptable (e.g., social media likes) for better performance, but not always.
Invalidation logic itself can introduce performance overhead if tag-based or deep-scanning mechanisms are used.
Over-invalidation can lead to cache stampedes, where too many requests bypass the cache and overload the backend.
To be continued..
In this blog, we looked at different reasons WHY cache invalidation is difficult, along with their examples.
In the next part of this blog, we will look at strategies used for caching and invalidating to make our lives easier.
Stay tuned.
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P. S. - If you are preparing for System design interviews and want to learn System Design in a limited time then you can also checkout sites like Codemia.io, ByteByteGo, Design Guru, Exponent, Educative, Bugfree.ai, System Design School, and Udemy which have many great System design courses
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